Tectonic Forces:
- Plate Tectonics: The movement of Earth's tectonic plates creates mountains, rift valleys, and other surface features.
- Folding and Faulting: When rocks are compressed or stretched, they can fold or fault, creating ridges, valleys, and cliffs.
- Subduction: Oceanic plates dive beneath continental plates, forming trenches, volcanic arcs, and mountain ranges.
Erosional Forces:
- Water: Running water erodes the land, creating rivers, canyons, and waterfalls.
- Wind: Wind can transport and deposit sand and dust, creating sand dunes and loess deposits.
- Glaciers: Ice sheets and glaciers scour and deposit sediment, shaping landscapes and creating glacial valleys and moraines.
Volcanic Forces:
- Volcanic Eruptions: Lava flows and ash deposits can build mountains, create craters, and alter the surrounding landscape.
- Hydrothermal Vents: Hot springs and hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor release minerals that can build up to form chimneys and other structures.
Other Forces:
- Asteroid and Meteor Impacts: Impacts from celestial bodies can create craters, mountain ranges, and alter the earth's crust.
- Karst Topography: The dissolution of soluble rocks (e.g., limestone) by groundwater can create sinkholes, caves, and underground drainage systems.
- Gravity: Gravity pulls down on material, contributing to the formation of mountains and valleys.
- Biogenic Forces: Organisms can contribute to soil formation, alter the flow of water, and create or modify surface structures.