1. Social expectations and norms: Tess was born into a society that placed a high value on purity and chastity, particularly for women. This societal pressure led to Tess feeling immense guilt and shame for her perceived "sin" of having a child out of wedlock.
2. Patriarchal society: Tess lived in a patriarchal society where men held power and control over women. This power dynamic was evident in her relationships with both Alec and Angel, who both exerted control over her in different ways.
3. Lack of agency: Tess had limited agency and autonomy over her own life, as she was often at the mercy of the decisions and actions of others. This lack of control over her own destiny contributed to her suffering.
4. Economic hardship: Tess and her family faced economic hardship and struggled to make ends meet. This financial instability added to Tess's stress and contributed to her feelings of hopelessness and despair.
5. Betrayal and heartbreak: Tess experienced betrayal and heartbreak at the hands of both Alec and Angel, who both failed to truly understand or support her. These emotional wounds deepened her suffering and contributed to her sense of isolation and despair.
6. Fate and destiny: Throughout the novel, Tess grapples with the idea of fate and destiny, feeling as though her suffering is preordained and inevitable. This sense of fatalism adds to her feelings of helplessness and despair.