Pathophysiology of Tuberculosis (TB)
1. Inhalation and Transmission:
- Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), the causative agent, is inhaled into the lungs as aerosolized droplets from infected individuals.
- It typically infects the lower lobes due to better ventilation and less phagocytic activity.
2. Intra-alveolar Phase:
- Within the alveoli, MTB is phagocytized by alveolar macrophages.
- However, some MTB can escape phagocytosis and replicate inside macrophages.
3. Primary Complex Formation:
- The infected macrophages spread to regional lymph nodes, forming a primary complex (Ghon focus and hilar lymphadenopathy).
4. Latency:
- In most cases (90%), the immune response controls the infection, and MTB enters a latent state within macrophages.
- Latency is maintained by the host immune response, particularly cell-mediated immunity (CMI).
5. Reactivation:
- In some individuals (10%), MTB reactivates from latency due to a weakened immune system (e.g., HIV, immunosuppressive drugs).
- Reactivation usually occurs from the primary complex or other latent foci in the lungs.
6. Post-Primary TB:
- Reactivated MTB spreads rapidly through the airways, causing extensive lung inflammation.
- It can lead to caseating granulomas, tissue necrosis, and cavitation.
- The cavitary lesions generate sputum, which contains large numbers of MTB and is infectious.
7. Extrapulmonary TB:
- TB can also spread hematogenously to other organs, such as the lymph nodes, kidneys, bones, brain, and peritoneum.
- Extrapulmonary TB accounts for about 20% of all TB cases.
8. Immune Response:
- The immune response against TB involves both innate and adaptive immunity:
- Innate immunity: Phagocytosis by macrophages, release of inflammatory mediators
- Adaptive immunity: T-cell activation, production of cytokines (e.g., IFN-γ), formation of granulomas
- Granulomas are organized immune structures that contain infected macrophages, lymphocytes, and fibroblasts. They help to localize and contain the infection.
9. Clinical Manifestations:
- Pulmonary TB: Cough, expectoration of sputum, fever, night sweats, weight loss
- Extrapulmonary TB: Depends on the affected organ (e.g., lymphadenopathy, meningitis, bone pain)