Describe the important features of the Harappan civilization.

The Harappan civilization, also known as the Indus Valley civilization, was one of the earliest urban civilizations in the world, flourishing in the Indus River valley in present-day Pakistan and northwest India from around 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. Some of the important features of the Harappan civilization include:

1. Urban planning: The Harappan cities, such as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, were meticulously planned with well-organized streets, drainage systems, and public buildings. The cities were divided into residential and industrial areas, with houses made of baked bricks and public baths.

2. Trade and economy: The Harappans were skilled traders who engaged in long-distance trade with regions as far away as Mesopotamia and Egypt. They produced a variety of goods, including pottery, jewelry, and textiles, which were traded for raw materials such as copper, tin, and precious stones.

3. Writing system: The Harappans developed a script that has not yet been deciphered, making it difficult to fully understand their language and written records. The script was used on seals and other artifacts, suggesting a sophisticated level of communication and record-keeping.

4. Agriculture: The Harappans were skilled farmers who cultivated crops such as wheat, barley, and cotton using advanced irrigation techniques. They also domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, and goats, which provided them with food and other resources.

5. Religion and art: The Harappans practiced a religion that involved worship of deities and ritualistic practices, as evidenced by the presence of figurines and seals depicting human and animal figures. They also created intricate pottery, jewelry, and sculptures, showcasing their artistic skills and creativity.

6. Decline: The Harappan civilization declined around 1900 BCE for reasons that are still debated among historians and archaeologists. Possible factors include environmental changes, natural disasters, and invasions by outside groups. The decline of the Harappan civilization paved the way for the rise of other ancient civilizations in the region, such as the Vedic civilization.

Urban Planning:

- Well-planned cities with a grid system of streets
- Extensive drainage and sewage systems
- Public baths and granaries
- Large fortified citadels for administrative and religious purposes

Architecture:

- Burnt-brick construction
- Standardized brick sizes and dimensions
- Two- to three-story dwellings with courtyards and wells
- Monumental public buildings, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro

Craftsmanship:

- Highly skilled metalworkers and artisans
- Bronze and copper artifacts, including weapons, tools, and jewelry
- Carved seals made of steatite
- Painted pottery with geometric and animal motifs

Writing System:

- Developed an undeciphered script, known as the Indus script

Trade and Commerce:

- Extensive trade network extending to Mesopotamia and Central Asia
- Use of distinctive weights and measures
- Evidence of maritime trade

Agriculture and Subsistence:

- Cultivated a variety of crops, including wheat, barley, and sesame
- Domesticated animals, such as cattle, sheep, and goats
- Advanced irrigation systems to support agriculture

Social Structure:

- Complex social hierarchy with rulers and priests
- Evidence of social divisions based on occupation and wealth
- Women appear to have played important roles in religious and economic life

Religion:

- Mother Goddess worship
- Evidence of animal sacrifice and a belief in an afterlife
- Temples and shrines have been discovered

Science and Technology:

- Developed a calendar based on astronomical observations
- Advanced understanding of metallurgy and engineering
- Pioneered the use of the zero symbol in mathematics