Describe how information reaches short-term memory.

Information reaches short-term memory through the process of encoding, which involves the conversion of sensory input into a form that can be stored and retrieved later. This process begins with the sensory organs, such as the eyes and ears, detecting external stimuli and sending signals to the brain. The brain then processes this information and determines its relevance and importance.

If the information is deemed important, it is transferred to short-term memory, which has a limited capacity and duration. This transfer is facilitated by attention, which involves focusing on specific stimuli and filtering out irrelevant information. Once in short-term memory, the information can be manipulated and used for tasks such as problem-solving or decision-making.

However, if the information is not rehearsed or encoded further, it may be lost from short-term memory through decay or interference. To prevent this loss, it is important to actively engage with the information, such as by repeating it or connecting it to existing knowledge. This process of encoding and rehearsal helps to strengthen the memory trace and increase the likelihood of successful retrieval.

Encoding

1. Sensory Input: Information is received through the senses (e.g., vision, hearing).
2. Sensory Processing: Sensory receptors convert stimuli into electrical signals.
3. Attention: Selective focus on relevant stimuli enhances encoding.
4. Working Memory: Information is held in a limited-capacity, temporary storage.

Transfer to Short-Term Memory

1. Rehearsal: Repeated retrieval and processing of information in working memory strengthens its memory trace.
2. Chunking: Grouping related items into larger units (e.g., memorizing a phone number in blocks).
3. Spreading Activation: Activating a concept in working memory increases the accessibility of related concepts in long-term memory.
4. Formation of Links: Connecting new information with existing knowledge improves retention.

Maintaining in Short-Term Memory

1. Recency Effect: Recently presented information is more accessible.
2. Primacy Effect: Items presented first are also more likely to be remembered.
3. Interfering Stimuli: Exposure to competing information can impair retention.
4. Duration: Typical duration of information in short-term memory is 15-30 seconds without rehearsal.

Additional Factors

- Attention: Focused attention on information enhances its transfer to short-term memory.
- Motivation: The desire to remember information also improves retention.
- Meaningfulness: Information that is relevant and meaningful is easier to encode and retain.
- Emotion: Emotional experiences can enhance memory consolidation.
- Sleep: Sleep helps consolidate short-term memories into long-term storage.